NRAM --->conclusion

Conclusion---->>>>>>
Universal memory.....
NATURE: A novel high-performance run-time reconfigurable architecture
Introduction of NRAMs into the architecture enables cycle-by-cycle reconfiguration and logic folding
Choice of different folding levels allows the flexibility of performing area-performance trade-offs
Logic density and area-time product improved significantly
Can be very useful for cost-conscious embedded systems and future FPGA improvement

NRAM-->Temparal logic folding.......

Above..logic folding...works in Boolean logic......(Note:..use the above pic in u ppt then u wil come to know how exactly it works)

Next, we will present the concept logic folding and how it is performed on NATURE. Since NATURE supports fine-grain run-time reconfiguration, a circuit can be temporally folded first before mapped into NATURE. We call this concept, logic folding. The basic idea for logic folding is that one can use NRAM-enabled run-time reconfiguration to implement different function in one LE every few cycles. Suppose there is a network of logic as this figure shows, it can be mapped to 3 LUTs originally. Use logic folding, one LUT is enough to implement all the three functions. We will put three configuration copies in the NRAM associated with the LUT and reconfigure it to implement each function in each cycle.
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NRAM....how nram helps in logic folding and reconfiguration

Then how the reconfiguration is performed? The figure shows the detail structure of NRAM. Each cell contains one bit and can be separately addressed by the word line and bit line. Whether the cell stores a 1 or 0 determines the high or low voltage at the output. Only during initialization, the reconfiguration bits will be written into the cells. Then during run-time reconfiguration, a reconfiguration copy will be read out from NRAM cells and put into the SRAMs to support the current computation or connectivity. Then let’s look at the reconfiguration overhead. First, the reconfiguration time is short, only around 160ps. That means there is almost no delay overhead. Then consider about the area overhead, assume there are 16 reconfiguration sets in the NRAM and we use 100nm technology for CMOS logic and 100nm nanotube length, through Layout the LB including the periphery interconnect, the area overhead is around 20.5% per LB. However, the logic density improves nearly k-fold. Here logic density is defined as, give an amount of area, if there are 16 reconfiguration copies. It can implement 16 times more logic than the original. Then counting the area overhead, logic density is the logic the effective area can implement. We can see that with a relative low overhead, we can gain large logic density improvement. The capacity of NRAM, parameter k, is very important. Too large k will waste area and too small k will affect performance. The optimal k value can be obtained through design space exploration. .......................

Example--->

Reconfiguration time short: 160ps
Area overhead of NRAMs
k: no. of reconfiguration sets per NRAM, assume k = 16
Area overhead: 20.5% per LB, assuming 100nm technology for CMOS logic and nanotube length
Logic density = k (conf. copies) x area per configuration = 16*(1-0.205)=12.75
Appropriate value for k obtained through design space exploration

NRAM working explanation

Based on the excellent properties of carbon nanotube, a start up company, called Nantero, invented a novel high performance carbon nanotube based memory, called, NRAM. This figure illustrates the structure of NRAM. Similar as traditional memory, it is a two dimensional array of cells and each cell stores one bit data. As for one cell, it is composed of a bundle of nanotubes, the metal support and electrode. The suspended nanotubes are mechanically bent or not determines the on/off states of the cell. As shown in this figure, when the nanotube is bent to the electrode, the resistance between the electrode and the nanotube is reduced. This is the “on” state. In contrast to it, the other is the “off” state. After the bits are written into the NRAM, it can be retained by itself without voltage supply, hence it is non-volatile. NRAM can be fabricated using fully CMOS-compatible manufacturing processes. A 10 Gbit sample chip has been fabricated and it will be ready soon for the market. ................
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NRAM FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES
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*Non-volatile nanotube random-access memory (NRAM)
*Mechanically bent or not: determines bistable on/off states
*Fully CMOS-compatible manufacturing process
*Prototype chip: 10 Gbit NRAM
*Will be ready for the market in the near future
Properties of NRAMs
*Non-volatile
*Similar speed to SRAM
*Similar density to DRAM
*Chemically and mechanically stable
NATURE not tied to NRAMs
*Phase change RAM
*Magnetoresistive RAM
*Ferroelectric RAM

NRAM----->working principle......and advantages

HElllo.... working of NRAM ....................

...................Click here.................http://www.nantero.com/nram.html

NRAM-->technologies used-->CNT ADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES OF CNT's ARE---------------->>

1. Diameter: 1-100nm
2.Length: up to millimeters
3.Ballistic transport
4.Excellent thermal conductivity
5.Very high current density
6.High chemical stability
7.Robust to environment

NRAM-->Technologies used---->CNT.... Properties and Advantages

Properties

[edit] Strength
Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials on earth, in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results from the covalent sp² bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multi-walled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 gigapascals (GPa). (This, for illustration, translates into ability to endure weight of 6300 kg on a cable with cross-section of 1 mm2.) Since carbon nanotubes have a low density for a solid of 1.3-1.4 g·cm−3,[17] its specific strength of up to 48,000 kN·m·kg−1 is the best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel's 154 kN·m·kg−1.
Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tube undergo before fracture by releasing strain energy.
CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Because of their hollow structure and high aspect ratio, they tend to undergo buckling when placed under compressive, torsional or bending stress.
Comparison of Mechanical Properties[23][24][25][26][27][28][29]
Material,
Kinetic-->Multi-walled nanotubes, multiple concentric nanotubes precisely nested within one another, exhibit a striking telescoping property whereby an inner nanotube core may slide, almost without friction, within its outer nanotube shell thus creating an atomically perfect linear or rotational bearing. This is one of the first true examples of molecular nanotechnology, the precise positioning of atoms to create useful machines. Already this property has been utilized to create the world's smallest rotational motor[30]. Future applications such as a gigahertz mechanical oscillator are also envisaged.

[edit] Electrical
Because of the symmetry and unique electronic structure of graphene, the structure of a nanotube strongly affects its electrical properties. For a given (n,m) nanotube, if n − m is a multiple of 3, then the nanotube is metallic, otherwise the nanotube is a semiconductor. Thus all armchair (n=m) nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (5,0), (6,4), (9,1), etc. are semiconducting. In theory, metallic nanotubes can have an electrical current density more than 1,000 times greater than metals such as silver and copper.

[edit] Thermal
All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube, exhibiting a property known as "ballistic conduction," but good insulators laterally to the tube axis. It is predicted that carbon nanotubes will be able to transmit up to 6000 watts per meter per kelvin at room temperature; compare this to copper, a metal well-known for its good thermal conductivity, which only transmits 385 W·m−1·K−1. The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800 degrees Celsius in vacuum and about 750 degrees Celsius in air.

[edit] Defects
As with any material, the existence of defects affects the material properties. Defects can occur in the form of atomic vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower the tensile strength by up to 85%. Another form of defect that may occur in carbon nanotubes is known as the Stone Wales defect, which creates a pentagon and heptagon pair by rearrangement of the bonds. Because of the very small structure of CNTs, the tensile strength of the tube is dependent on the weakest segment of it in a similar manner to a chain, where a defect in a single link diminishes the strength of the entire chain.
The tube's electrical properties are also affected by the presence of defects. A common result is the lowered conductivity through the defective region of the tube. Some defect formation in armchair-type tubes (which can conduct electricity) can cause the region surrounding that defect to become semiconducting. Furthermore single monoatomic vacancies induce magnetic properties.
The tube's thermal properties are heavily affected by defects. Such defects lead to phonon scattering, which in turn increases the relaxation rate of the phonons. This reduces the mean free path, and reduces the thermal conductivity of nanotube structures. Phonon transport simulations indicate that substitutional defects such as nitrogen or boron will primarily lead to scattering of high frequency optical phonons. However, larger scale defects such as Stone Wales defects cause phonon scattering over a wide range of frequencies, leading to a greater reduction in thermal conductivity[31].

[edit] One-Dimensional Transport
Due to their nanoscale dimensions, electron transport in carbon nanotubes will take place through quantum effects and will only propagate along the axis of the tube. Because of this special transport property, carbon nanotubes are frequently referred to as “one-dimensional” in scientific articles.

[edit] Toxicity
Determining the toxicity of carbon nanotubes has been one of the most pressing questions in Nanotechnology. Results from various scientific tests on cells have so far proven confusing, with some results indicating it to be highly toxic and others showing no signs of toxicity.[32] The best current explanation for these apparently contradictory results is that no two production processes make exactly the same type of CNTs. Some contain measureable levels of impurities such as cobalt and nickel which have documented toxicity and which may be the true causes of the effects. Additionally CNTs have a range of physical and chemical properties (e.g., surface area, zeta potential) that are not often controlled for in toxicology studies. A study led by Alexandra Porter from the University of Cambridge shows once CNTs are inside the cell, they accumulate in the cytoplasm and cause cell death, but without rigorous CNT/impurity characterization it is difficult to interpret this result or determine its significance. [33] A more recent study reveals that carbon nanotubes, when injected in the lungs of mice, are incapable of being disposed of by specialized cells in the lung as these tubes are too large for the cells to engulf, thus leading to constitutive inflammation, a hallmark precancerous symptom. However, the doses required to achieve this response are considered high, or even extreme. [34]. Moreover, the hydrophobicity of unfunctionalised carbon nanotubes causes agglomeration of tubes into larger bundles or particles and have been (later) attributed to the suffocation of mice in such studies rather than toxic effects. It appears that the length of carbon nanotubes is the critical factor in toxicity or lack of biocompatibility when coupled with the biological (& biochemical) environment, which may improve solubility in aqueous solutions due to protein adsorption to the carbon nanotube surface. Buckypaper, for example, which is a mat of carbon nanotubes compressed to a paper-like form, has been used successfully for the growth of various cell types without featuring toxic effects.

NRAM-->technologies used-->2.Carbon nanotubes..

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter ratio greater than 1,000,000. These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel properties that make them potentially useful in many applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics and other fields of materials science, as well as extensive use in arcology[citation needed] and architectural fields. They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient conductors of heat. Inorganic nanotubes have also been synthesized.
Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family, which also includes the spherical buckyballs. The cylindrical nanotube usually has at least one end capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is in the order of a few nanometers (approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several millimeters in length (as of 2008). Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs).
The nature of the bonding of a nanotube is described by applied quantum chemistry, specifically, orbital hybridization. The chemical bonding of nanotubes is composed entirely of sp2 bonds, similar to those of graphite. This bonding structure, which is stronger than the sp3 bonds found in diamond, provides the molecules with their unique strength. Nanotubes naturally align themselves into "ropes" held together by Van der Waals forces. Under high pressure, nanotubes can merge together, trading some sp² bonds for sp³ bonds, giving the possibility of producing strong, unlimited-length wires through high-pressure nanotube linking.

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Discovery of CNT----------->>>>>>>>>>>

A 2006 editorial written by Marc Monthioux and Vladimir Kuznetsov in the journal Carbon has described the interesting and often misstated origin of the carbon nanotube. A large percentage of academic and popular literature attributes the discovery of hollow, nanometer sized tubes composed of graphitic carbon to Sumio Iijima of NEC in 1991.[1]
In 1952 L. V. Radushkevich and V. M. Lukyanovich published clear images of 50 nanometer diameter tubes made of carbon in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry.[2] This discovery was largely unnoticed, as the article was published in the Russian language, and Western scientists' access to Soviet press was limited during the Cold War. It is likely that carbon nanotubes were produced before this date, but the invention of the transmission electron microscope allowed the direct visualization of these structures.
Carbon nanotubes have been produced and observed under a variety of conditions prior to 1991. A paper by Oberlin, Endo, and Koyama published in 1976 clearly showed hollow carbon fibres with nanometer-scale diameters using a vapour-growth technique.[3] Additionally, the authors show a TEM image of a nanotube consisting of a single wall of graphene. Later, Endo has referred to this image as a single-walled nanotube.[4]
Furthermore, in 1979, John Abrahamson presented evidence of carbon nanotubes at the 14th Biennial Conference of Carbon at Penn State University. The conference paper described carbon nanotubes as carbon fibers which were produced on carbon anodes during arc discharge. A characterization of these fibres was given as well as hypotheses for their growth in a nitrogen atmosphere at low pressures.[5]
In 1981 a group of Soviet scientists published the results of chemical and structural characterization of carbon nanoparticles produced by a thermocatalytical disproportionation of carbon monoxide. Using TEM images and XRD patterns, the authors suggested that their “carbon multi-layer tubular crystals” were formed by rolling graphene layers into cylinders. Additionally, they speculated that during rolling graphene layers into a cylinder, many different arrangements of graphene hexagonal nets are possible. They suggested two possibilities of such arrangements: circular arrangement (armchair nanotube) and a spiral, helical arrangement (chiral tube).[6]
In 1987, Howard G. Tennent of Hyperion Catalysis was issued a U.S. patent for the production of "cylindrical discrete carbon fibrils" with a "constant diameter between about 3.5 and about 70 nanometers…, length 10² times the diameter, and an outer region of multiple essentially continuous layers of ordered carbon atoms and a distinct inner core…."[7]
Iijima's discovery of carbon nanotubes in the insoluble material of arc-burned graphite rods[8] created the buzz that is now associated with carbon nanotubes. Nanotube research accelerated greatly following the independent discoveries[9][10] by Bethune at IBM[11] and Iijima at NEC of single-walled carbon nanotubes and methods to specifically produce them by adding transition-metal catalysts to the carbon in an arc discharge. The arc discharge technique was well-known to produce the famed Buckminster fullerene on a preparative scale,[12] and these results appeared to extend the run of accidental discoveries relating to fullerenes. The original observation of fullerenes in mass spectrometry was not anticipated,[13] and the first mass-production technique by Krätschmer and Huffman was used for several years before realising that it produced fullerenes.[12]
The discovery of nanotubes remains a contentious issue, especially because several scientists involved in the research could be likely candidates for the Nobel Prize. Many believe that Iijima's report in 1991 is of particular importance because it brought carbon nanotubes into the awareness of the scientific community as a whole. See the reference for a review of the history of the discovery of carbon nanotubes.[1]
In 2000, Professor Tang Zikang and Wang Ning successfully created the smallest stable carbon nanotubes in the world, measuring at just 0.4 nanometres in diameter. [14]...........................

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Types of CNT's(Carbon nano tubes)---->>Multiwalled and singlewalled

Multiwalled and singlewalled structures........are---->>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

Note...above...(Black coloured back ground....figure is Singlewalled CNT)................

Explanation og SWNT---->Most single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, with a tube length that can be many thousands of times longer. The structure of a SWNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite called graphene into a seamless cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (n,m) called the chiral vector. The integers n and m denote the number of unit vectors along two directions in the honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. If m=0, the nanotubes are called "zigzag". If n=m, the nanotubes are called "armchair". Otherwise, they are called "chiral".
Single-walled nanotubes are a very important variety of carbon nanotube because they exhibit important electric properties that are not shared by the multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) variants. Single-walled nanotubes are the most likely candidate for miniaturizing electronics beyond the micro electromechanical scale that is currently the basis of modern electronics. The most basic building block of these systems is the electric wire, and SWNTs can be excellent conductors.[15] One useful application of SWNTs is in the development of the first intramolecular field effect transistors (FETs). The production of the first intramolecular logic gate using SWNT FETs has recently become possible as well.[16] To create a logic gate you must have both a p-FET and an n-FET. Because SWNTs are p-FETs when exposed to oxygen and n-FETs when unexposed to oxygen, it is possible to protect half of a SWNT from oxygen exposure, while exposing the other half to oxygen. This results in a single SWNT that acts as a NOT logic gate with both p and n-type FETs within the same molecule.
Single-walled nanotubes are still very expensive to produce, around $1500 per gram as of 2000, and the development of more affordable synthesis techniques is vital to the future of carbon nanotechnology. If cheaper means of synthesis cannot be discovered, it would make it financially impossible to apply this technology to commercial-scale applications.[17] Several suppliers offer as-produced arc discharge SWNTs for ~$50–100 per gram as of 2007.[18][19].................

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Multiwalled CNT-------->

Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple layers of graphite rolled in on themselves to form a tube shape. There are two models which can be used to describe the structures of multi-walled nanotubes. In the Russian Doll model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders, e.g. a (0,8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT) within a larger (0,10) single-walled nanotube. In the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled up newspaper. The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite, approximately 3.3 Å (330 pm).
The special place of double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT) must be emphasized here because they combine very similar morphology and properties as compared to SWNT, while improving significantly their resistance to chemicals. This is especially important when functionalisation is required (this means grafting of chemical functions at the surface of the nanotubes) to add new properties to the CNT. In the case of SWNT, covalent functionalisation will break some C=C double bonds, leaving "holes" in the structure on the nanotube and thus modifying both its mechanical and electrical properties. In the case of DWNT, only the outer wall is modified. DWNT synthesis on the gram-scale was first proposed in 2003[20] by the CCVD technique, from the selective reduction of oxides solid solutions in methane and hydrogen

NRAM-->technologies used-->1.Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology or, for short, nanotech, refers to a field of applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures 100 nanometers or smaller, and involves developing materials or devices within that size.
Nanotechnology is a highly diverse and multidisciplinary field, ranging from novel extensions of conventional device physics, to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, to developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale, even to speculation on whether we can directly control matter on the atomic scale.
There has been much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has the potential to create many new materials and devices with wide-ranging applications, such as in medicine, electronics, and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have lead to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

Origin-->of Nanotechnology....

The first use of the concepts in 'nano-technology' (but predating use of that name) was in "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important, surface tension and Van der Waals attraction would become more important, etc. This basic idea appears plausible, and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of end products. The term "nanotechnology" was defined by Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper[1] as follows: "'Nano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule." In the 1980s the basic idea of this definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and the books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology (1986) and Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation,[2] and so the term acquired its current sense. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology is considered the first book on the topic of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with two major developments; the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1986 and carbon nanotubes a few years later. In another development, the synthesis and properties of semiconductor nanocrystals was studied; This led to a fast increasing number of metal oxide nanoparticles of quantum dots. The atomic force microscope was invented six years after the STM was invented. In 2000, the United States National Nanotechnology Initiative was founded to coordinate Federal nanotechnology research and development.

Fundamenatl concepts-->

One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10-9 of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12-0.15 nm, and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular lifeforms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 20000 nm in length.
To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth.[3] Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount a man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.[3]
Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control..............

*********CONCLUSION******......From all the above come know how the particle size can be reduced and strength can be increased......so Nanotechnology is used in this NRAM construction...

NRAM--->Technology used

fig1:Nanotechnology.......................................

FOR NRAM constructrution..technologies used are.....>>>

1.Nanotechnology

2.Carbon nanotubes....,.....

Above figures..1.tells Nanotechnology 2.Carbonnanotubes.....

NRAM..INTRODUCTION..

Nano-RAM, is a proprietary computer memory technology from the company Nantero. It is a type of nonvolatile random access memory based on the mechanical position of carbon nanotubes deposited on a chip-like substrate. In theory the small size of the nanotubes allows for very high density memories. Nantero also refers to it as NRAM in short...................

Nantero, Inc. is building a high density nonvolatile random access memory chip, which can replace DRAM (dynamic RAM), SRAM (static RAM), flash memory, and ultimately hard disk storage--in other words a universal memory chip suitable for countless existing and new applications in the field of electronics. The target markets in aggregate exceed $100B in revenue per year. Nantero's product is called NRAM™ (Nanotube-based/ Nonvolatile RAM), developed using proprietary concepts and methods derived from leading-edge research in nanotechnology.
Nantero has created multiple prototype devices, including an array of ten billion suspended nanotube junctions on a single silicon wafer. Nantero's design for NRAM™ involves the use of suspended nanotube junctions as memory bits, with the "up" position representing bit zero and the "down" position representing bit one. Bits are switched between states through the application of electrical fields. The wafer was produced using only standard semiconductor processes, maximizing compatibility with existing semiconductor factories.
NRAM™ will be considerably faster and denser than DRAM, have substantially lower power consumption than DRAM or flash, be as portable as flash memory, and be highly resistant to environmental forces (heat, cold, magnetism). And as a nonvolatile chip, it will provide permanent data storage even without power. Possible uses include the enabling of instant-on computers, which boot and reboot instantly, as well as high-density portable memory - MP3 players with 1000s of songs, PDAs with 10 gigabytes of memory, high-speed network servers and much more.
The proprietary NRAM™ design, invented by Dr. Thomas Rueckes, Nantero's Chief Technology Officer, uses carbon nanotubes as the active memory elements. Carbon nanotubes are members of the fullerene family and have amazing properties, including the ability to conduct electricity as well as copper while being stronger than steel and as hard as diamond. The wall of a single-walled carbon nanotube is only one carbon atom thick and the tube diameter is approximately 100,000 times smaller than a human hair. Dr. Rueckes' pioneering design takes advantage of these unique properties while cleverly integrating nanotubes with traditional semiconductor technologies for immediate manufacturability.

NRAM....

Hello, here is an complete infmn about....NRAM paperpresentation...............
Helllo ..this NRAM(Nano ram)...